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Translation Approaches EssayThe development of trade and industry has al appearances given rise to transmutes in the evolution of communities, bringing ab come on bleak social forms and stratification of friendship. This in its turn accelerated the appearance of businesses and factories, arrival of new professions, and urbanization. Since the times of Perestroika (which was started in 1989 by Mikhail Gorbatchev) Russian society has been experiencing dramatic changes that affected the countrys politics, economy and social life. In the past 15 years peoples attitudes to certain things restrain changed gradually further profoundly. We have gotten so utilize to these new attitudes that its hard to believe it hasnt always been like this. With the arrival of the 21st degree centigrade we have experienced changes in the economic, legal, technological and new(pre nominative) argonas which affect our everyday lives. Social changes entail linguistic transformations. Russians in the ir everyday life got used to certain basis to the point that they no longer come across them termsATM machine () deposit () account () contract () download () etc.The terminology of international development is eternally evolving as new socioeconomic concepts emerge. In over 10 years the writer has witnessed the appearance of a number of metal m nonpargonilys, either entirely new terms or established terms used with a different meaning 1. In different societies this process whitethorn take different directions depending on the needs and wants of its people. In Russian society an explosive growth of terms pertaining to the economic and computer atomic number 18as can be observed.Russians largely borrow these terms from the languages of countries with a longer capitalistic and technological customs duty (like the USA, for example), therefore bringing English words and miens into the language. Though some of these espousals have corresponding resemblings in Russian, the Eng lish terms argon being extensively used by the population, as further evidence of the social changes that have taken place in the country (a similar process would have been inconceivable in the cold war period). Translation is undoubtedly a social phenomenon.Translators choices are influenced non scarce by the source language text and the peculiarities of the butt audience, but in addition by the era to which the arranger belongsin translating for the modern reviewer it is necessary to take into consideration creative traditions, literary norms and conventions that are familiar to the reader of a certain society. Nowadays, due to various political changes and dynamic economic and technological growth, the Russian language has acquired numerous terms, which very quickly migrate from the degree of neologisms to the category of familiar and frequently used words.Few of these words (computer terms, for example) do not possess the corresponding equivalent in Russian m each of them do have a Russian (very often explanatory) equivalent. For lawsuit, such nouns as brand, merger, summit, default, deposit, site, spam, tuner, web surfing and adjectives as local, creative, top have equivalents in Russian, but the new strange word is usually preferred (the tendency as a radiation pattern is started by the mass media). this whitethorn be explained by the fact that a borrowing often has a semantic compactness, whereas a Russian equivalent has a descriptive rolein some cases a whole sentence must be used.So translators have to handle with the problem of either choosing a popular borrowing or go with the equivalent already existing in the language. Translators of a new generation prefer not to translate so-called Americanisms and foreign food names, as they are familiar to people of all countries, and the translator no longer has the absolute need to always find a transformation of a term in the target language if this would make the target-language text lose cred ibility. This is called excessive adaptation.An excessive definition is a translation that fails to foreignise/exoticise, i. e. , use source-language terms in the target-language text, to the degree that is now acceptable2. Those educated in the 60s, 50s and earlier strongly believe that foreign equivalents should be avoided, especially when a corresponding term or notion exists in the language In very rare cases, only when its absolutely necessary for the narration of a character to use a foreign word, a Russian equivalent is always better and more appropriate.This holds square(a) for newspapers and journals, and is hundredfold more important in fiction. 3 Certainly appearing of new criteria to what should be called an able translation affected the translation of fiction. Thats why new translations of novels already translated into Russian appeared recently. The well-nigh popular mavens are the translations of F. S. Fitzgeralds novels The Great Gatsby and Tender is the Nigh t. The general tendency is a frequent use of anglicisms in the TL, even though they are not hold in the text of the original Now it has become a summer resort of notable and fashionable people in 1925 it was almost deserted after its English clientele went north in April only the cupolas of dozen old villas rotted like water lilies among the massed pines4. The phrase a summer resort of notable and fashionable people in Russian corresponds to many various bungalows have been built ( ).For no obvious reason, the translator uses a nowadays fashionable world bungalow, which is not even present in the original English text. Other examples might include the following translating inconsistencies (fraternity was translated into Russian translation by the equivalent of student corporations market umbrella was translated as huge tent). In all cases Russian equivalents could be used (as were in the previous translation by E. D. Kalashnikova).There is too a number of colloquial words and expressions unnecessarily used in the new translation cafe is translated as kafeshka (a particular form for cafe) specious reasoning is translated as tufta (a colloquial word, meaning malarkey, crap) horse-trader as torgash (a derisive synonym of merchant, could be translated as torgovets or, as it was in Kalashinkovas version, barishnik) worlds bazaar real an equivalent of world market (it sounded so much nicer in Kalashnikovas translation as lifes fairjarmarka zhizni).The only positive trend in the new translation philosophy is that, instead of generalizing or omitting certain notions (which didnt exist in the Soviet society), the exact specific equivalent can be used terrier is now present in the Russian language, although in the first translation it had to be translated as little dog (pjosik) cauliflower had to be translated as cabbage. The use of these nouns is possible convey to the economic transformations on the Russian market, not because of a translators talent.First t ranslations of the novels that werent published in Russia before due to a number of reasons, for example, explicit descriptions of sexuality, have also appeared. John Updikes novels, known for his pointillist flair5 filled with sharp realistic descriptions, have just recently become available to the Russian reader. On the whole, the artistic qualities of Updikes style are not lost in these translations. However, certain translating choices are not very clear mostly due to the fact that the erect produced by the original is not the kindred as the one produced by the translation.In Rabbit, Run, Updikes most famous novel, there are instances when women characters appear less(prenominal) appealing in Russian than in the original. Rabbits wife, who, being compared to his mistress, is described as mysterious, an opaque and virginal wife6 in Russian turned into an incomprehensible, sullen and indifferent boulder7 (, , )clearly, the translator is taking the mistresss side in this situ ation. The same mistress, when Rabbit is thinking ab disclose returning to her, reasonably inquires How would you support me? .8 In Russian this stylistically neutral phrase changes into a rude rough-cut expression meaning On what a fig would you feed me? (Na kakie shishi ti budesh menja kormit)9. The references that we have about certain phenomena are not always taken into consideration. When describing the Springers the agent remarks on some of their qualities, which are thoroughly meshed into the strategies of middle-class life. 10 In Russian strategies of middle-class life become petit bourgeois way of life11 ( )an expression that has a very negative connotation for the Russian reader.Somehow, in other(a) situations, rather emotional English equivalents are substituted by neutral Russian words. In the phrase The reason Fosnacht keeps getting Billy all this expensive crap is probably he feels guilty for leaving him12 the word crap which shows Rabbits negative and swaggerin g attitude to the discussed problem is translated by the noun things (shtuki), in translation the whole communicative aim of this situation is lost. 13 Russian linguists, who assign great importance to the communicative function of the process of translation, are certainly concerned about the forest of the published translations.Maybe this is one of the reasons why so many articles devoted to the problems of linguistic Pragmatics are being published. Linguistic Pragmatics underlines the necessity of interpreting the situation and analyzing the communicative possibilities of how it can be perceived by those involved in this communicative process, thus providing the basis for human interaction. The translation, viewed within the framework of Linguistic Pragmatics, concentrates not on the semantic meaning of the SL text, but on its communicative aim.Questions about translation quality push Applied Linguistics to a new stage of development (because it includes the science of translati on). Arguments on how to treat numerous neologisms and borrowings arriving into the Russian language have bring around the advancement of Lexicographythe science of dictionary compiling. Online dictionaries gain more significance for both specialists and amateur users. As online dictionaries can be regularly updated, their users wont have to deal with the problem of outdated vocabulary, which will still exist in the database, but with the necessary markers.Specialized vocabulary is duly marked and all the possible combinations are represented in the database, for e. g. the noun balance has many meanings pertaining to different spheres such as aviation, automobile industry, banking, biology, mining, bookkeeping, etc. , but hyperlinks take users to the needed meaning in seconds. indeed in the 21st century, when effective communication has become the center of our professional lives, the importance of finding better ways of translating is increasing.Due to globalization and establish ment of multinational corporations, new criteria appear of what can be regarded as an adequate translation. Introducing neologisms and borrowings into translation of articles from magazines and scientific journals might be viewed as a modern and open-minded go about however translators should be extremely careful about not overloading fiction with unnecessary foreign expressions. It is important to remember at whom the translation is targeted and what communicative effect it is supposed to produce.The debates about what can be considered an equivalent translation give rise to a new stage of development of Applied Linguistics and other linguistic sciences, which are becoming more and more concerned about achieving communicative excellence in the modern world. Formation of English Neologisms Introduction characteristic features of news headlines Formation of english neologisms Use of Translation Methods When Translating discussion Headlines Common Methods of Newspaper Headlines Tr anslation fantastic Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation 1. The use of word-formative means (suffixes, prefixes, composition).Among the most productive neologism-formative suffixes are ian, -ation Ballistician ( as musician, physician, etc) Commodification , ( as simplification).Other productive neologism-formative suffixes are -ship brinkmanship craftsmanship showmanship -dom bangdom bogdom suckerdom -izeitemize institutionalize unionize Neologisms formed via composition are constantly appearing in the English language as well Laptop (= notebook) ( , ) Know-how -, Stay-in Sit-in Buy-in ( ) Shut-down , () Brain-drain Has-been , .Here the challenge for a translator is to preserve the style of a news headline and at the same time give an adequate russian variant of a headline Russia the brain-drain drains technological progress . ( world panoptic promise Tribune).2. Recomprehension of the existing words. It means that well-known words acquire new meanings. For example, the word summit which is frequently used in news headlines and is traditionally rendered into Russian , acquired the new meaning in the late 70-is , .Here is another example. The medical term eye mask denotes an operation during which a surgeon transplants patient A with a heart and lungs of the donor who has died of brain hemorrhage, and patient B is transplanted with an old heart of patient A. This neologism emerged in the 80-s as a result of the re-comprehension of the word domino the game in which each die is divided into two equal parts. The basic meaning of the word colour-blind is , , . In the last quarter of the 20-th century it acquired the new meaning , () .The word shuttle originated as ( ). Via recomprehension of its original meaning it acquired several new ones (shuttle spaceship) , (shuttle trader). A big amount of neologisms formed in this wa y have appeared in computer terminology Web () Mouse Site ( ) Browser ( . to browse ) Serve ( to serve ).When making a translation of a news headline containing a neologism formed by means of recomprehension it is recommended either to keep to the method of descriptive translation or give the transliteration of the neologism with the following explanation which as a rule is to be found in the beginning of the article The countrys fifth domino was carried out in Arizona . (Sunday Times). (The set-out of the russian variant reads , . , , ). 3. Abbreviations and acronyms. Here are the abbreviations most widely used in news headlines S. W. I. F. T. The Society for oecumenic Inter-bank Financial Telecommunications TCB take care of business Benelux Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg CCFF Compensatory and Contingency Financing Facility.( , ) CPI Consumer Price Index ( , ) EFTA European Free Trade Association ( , ) EMS European Monetary ashes ( , ) IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( , ) IMF International Monetary Fund ( , )OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development ( , ) SDR Special Drawing Rights ( ) SNA System of National Accounts ( , ) VER Voluntary Export Restraints ( ) OECD board meeting takes place on Monday (Business Week). Semantic transformations are inescapable when dealing with news headlines.The fillip for it is a huge amount of the so called headline vocabulary in the English language, often referred to as headlinese, which demands certain modifications when making a translation. Here is a list of words from the headline slang ban, bid, claim, crash, cut, dash, hit, move, pact, plea, probe, quit, quiz, rap, Red, rush, slash. These short words which can be easily inserted into a headline are characterized by a wide field of their use.Thus, bid is not only ,,, but also ,, hit not only , , ,but , -, pact not only ,,, but , , probe not only , but ,, as well quit not only ,, but also , , quiz not only ,but ,, .It is important to point out that such words have already almost utterly replaced their synonyms in news headlines. Thus, ban taken the place of forbid and prohibit rap of criticize, reprimand, interrogate. enormous semantics of headline words demand context-conditioned transformations in the translation. In the majority ofcases concrete definition (hyponimic transformation) takes place in the Russian variant.The accurate sense of the headline is as usual revealed in the beginning of the article Minebea Fous Trafalgar-Glen Bid(The Independent). Comp. The articles outset Minebea Corp, of Japan, the worlds largest maker of precision bearings, has foiled a hostile takeover attempt by a US-British financial group, the Kyodo News Service reported Friday. Here the outset takes away the polysemy of the headline word replacing it by the corresponding equivalent which is i ncluded into the concretizing and defining context Trafalgar-Glen Bid a hostile takeover attempt by a US-British financial group.In that way the translation may sound as follows - or - . Polysemic interprepretation of a news headline can also be conditioned by the use of certain syntactic constructions, nominal phrases in particular, which can be interpreted in different ways, for instance Benn Blasts Tory Nuclear Cover-up.(The Times). It is impossible to translate the phrase r Nuclear Cover-up without the context. alternate(a) versions are possible because of the bearing word of the phrase cover up derived from the phrasal verb to cover up , -. But the main difficulty originates from the ovate character of the whole phrase.The clue to the accurate interpretation of the phrase lies in the articles outset Labour MP n Benn last night criminate the government of totally misleadingthe British people about nuclear cater. Thus, cover-up means here not merely , but a lso , and the omitted element in the nominal phrase above is power (Tory nuclear cover-upTory nuclear power cover-up). The following variants of translation are possible or . In the instance above the main difficulty connected with the interpretation of the nominal phrase is determined by its elliptic social organization.In the following news headline elliptic structure is combined with the polysemy of semantic relations between the phrase components Power Station Action Starts Today (The Times). In this case power station can be realated to action as 1) the agent, 2) the object, 3) the adverbial modifier of place. What is more, the phrase might be supposed to be characterized by semantic incompletness.The answers to these questions are to be found in the set-out Todays Start of national indus rill action in Britains power stations forms the background to the biennial Conferences of the electricians union in Scarborough. and then power station is related to action as an adverbial modifier and the element omitted is the word combination industrial action .Thus the Russian variants may be as follows . It is important to notice the essential difference between Russian and English news headlines. This difference mainly denotes the extent to which the article circumscribe are reflected in the headline.The authors of the British and American news article keep to the following principle when creating headlines Headlines should tell the story. Thus a headline is the stiff to the limit variant of the main text Dusseldorfs State Gallery Proves a Mausoleum for Mummified Modernism First Chicago Bank Says Profit Rose 58% for initial Period. (The Sun).The Russian news headlines are based on a different principle as a rule they place an emphasis on one element of the text contents ( ) . In such cases additional information is required because the method of literal translation does not guarantee an adequate English variant.Common Methods of N ewspaper Headlines Translation Introduction Distinctive features of news headlines Formation of english neologisms The Use of Translation Methods When Translating News Headlines Common Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation Peculiar Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation 1. Inversion. This transformation is demanded by a fixed word order in the English sentence.It is often conditioned on the degree of compatibility immunity in both languages Most favoured nation trading status . (The Economist). Polynomial word combinations which are frequently used for creating news headlines in the British and American periodicals often include attributes which represent a full sentence The no-room-at-the-inn incident , (The Sun). The principle of the translation of such news headlines includes the following locomote 1. To figure out the bearing word 2. To select semantic groups 3. To make a translation starting with the bearing word. 2.The replacement of parts of speech or parts of a sentence. In some cases the replacement of certain parts of speech or members of sentence is required in order to achieve adequate translation Bill Clinton faces bypass operation (International enunciate Tribune).It is the syntactical and semantic transformation that the sentence undergoes in the above case the definite clause is replaced by the indefinite one due to the peculiarities of the Russian language. Thus, the simple predicate faces in the English headline is substituted for the complex verbal predicate in the Russian variant. 3.Word addition is required in order to clear up the meaning of a headline and deliver adequate translation For Bush its the man (not a detailed plan) that matters , , (International Herald Tribune). The laconism of the English language allows to omit the subordinate clause we add to the Russian variant without any significant changes in the meaning. As one can observe, apart from the method of word addition the meth od of inversion is also used in this case. some other example is Feel the hate, fear and loathing in New York , , -. (International Herald Tribune) U. S. reservist convicted over abuse in Iraqi prison . (International Herald Tribune). 4.Literal translation can take place in case of the similarity of the syntactical structure and word order in the English and the Russian sentence. In this case the English news headline may be rendered into Russian without any significant changes.Here it is possible to omit an article or any other functional word or to change the semantic character of a word. Literal translation should not be mixed with a word-for-word translation which always leads to a mistake. Exampler of the use of literal translation method Lebanon extends term of its president . (International Herald Tribune ). The Use of Translation Methods When Translating News Headlines Introduction Distinctive features of news headlines Formation of english neologisms.T he Use of Translation Methods When Translating News Headlines Common Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation Peculiar Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation 1) The structure of news headlines often includes foreswear word combinations. Thus, their peculiarities are worth considering when translating a headline. In free word combinations words preserve their meanings.That is why when translating a free word combination it is necessary to know the translation of each of its components. In case there are no corresponding linguistic items in the Russian language to the English ones the translation method to be used is called replication. Replication means that all the components of a word combination are rendered without any changes.thank to the method of replication there is a huge amount of international notions which are widely used in news headlines Shuttle diplomacy illegal circle Head of the government Free economic zone Maldistribution of costs Jobl ess rate Jobless rate tips lower in France . (International Herald Tribune). It should be noted however that replication does not mean mere mechanical rendering of the meanings of a free word combination components.These components often stick to in complicated relationships with each other. Even the most simple attributive groups which coincide in their structure with the Russian combinations + (A+N Adjective+Noun) can be difficult to translate because1. An English word (adjective in the function of an attribute) can be translated in different ways depending on the meaning of a noun that follows globe opinion Public debt Public scandal Public debt of Lybia increases by 2,8 % over 8 months 8 2,8 % (The Economist). 2.The Russian variant bears a preposition Europian securiy Stateless citizen Terrorist trial Commercial revolution Who is to be responsible for European Security? ? (The Times).3. Components of an attributive gr oup are shifted Working expectancy Administrative efficiency Crisis reduce due to administrative efficiency . (International Herald Tribune ).2)News headlines can be well characterized by the frequent use of phraseological units. Phraseological units are more or less stable word combinations the meaning of which is determined by the whole unit but not by the meanings of each of its components Its high time invite your time Help yourself A new delicious production of Kaligula theatrical epicures, please help yourself (The Daily Telegraph). British and American news headlines are rich in both figurative and non-figurative phraseological units. Non-figurative phraseological units are also called fraseological combinations.The components in them preserve their meanings but combine with certain words only, that is why it is impossible to change them ad arbitruim To take measures To make a conclusiveness To achieve results To pay attentio n () To draw attention (-) Troops start storming school in Beslan who makes decision? ? (International Herald Tribune).The translation of non-figurative phraseological expressions into Russian can be carried out in two different ways The 1st method the expression is rendered into one Russian word To take a risk To have a rest To take offence To take a nap Does NTT general handler take big risks? --? (The Times). The 2d method a phraseological unit is rendered into equivalent combinations (absolute and relative) a) absolute equivalents o shadow cabinet o to hit the target o golden share o to put an end to , o the root of the discomfit o to read between lines Terrorism where root of trouble to be found ? (International Herald Tribune). b) relative equivalentso to take into account o to make a point o to jump at conclusions o moment of silence o ups-and-downs o at the worlds end o think tank o token strike Ups-and-downs of Rolex brief brain on history (Business Week).All in all, to whatever extent the components of a phraseological unit might be semantically connected, the main rule when making a translation is to observe the norms of the Russian language and avoid literal translation and violation of the Russian set expressions. Figurative phraseological units are also known as idioms. Idioms can be often found in news headlines as well.An idiom is a setexpression (conversational formula) the meaning of which does not arise from the sum of its components meanings o through thick and thin o tooth and nail , o its raining cats and dogs o to be caught guilty US guardsman caught red-handed (International Herald Tribune). When translating idioms one ought to use their Russian equivalents.